INPUT INTERFACE ANDROID APLICATION QC

 

INPUT INTERFACE ANDROID APLICATION QC

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2.2 TYPES OF PRODUCTION

Another way of classifying production activity is according to the quantity of product made. ln this classification, there are three types of production :

1. Job shop production
2. Batch production
3. Mass production

This classification is normally associated with discrete-product manufacture, but it can also serve for plants used in the process industries. For example, some chemicals are produced in batches (batch production), whereas others are produced by continuous-flow processes (mass production). The three types of production are related to production volume as shown in Figure 2.l.
JOB SHOPS. The distinguishing feature of job shop production is low volume. The manufacturing lot sizes are small, often one of a kind. Job shop production is commonly used to meet specific customer orders, and there is a great variety in the type of work the plant must do. Therefore, the production equipment must be flexible and general-purpose to allow for this variety of work. Also, the skill level of job shop workers must
be relatively high so that they can perform a range of different work assignments. Examples of products manufactured in a job shop include space vehicles, aircraft, machine tools, special tools and equipment, and prototypes of future products.

chapter 2 Production Operations and Automation Strategies

Production is a transformation process that converts raw materials into finished products that have value in the marketplace. The products are made by a combination of manual labor, machinery, tools, and energy. The transfomiation process usually involves a se quence of steps, each step bringing the materials closer to the desired tinal state. The individual steps are referred to as production operations.
ln this chapter we define some fundamental concepts about production and automation. We begin by examining the industries that are engaged in manufacturing. This leads into the types of production and the various functions that are associated with it. Many of the functions can be described by mathematical models, and several equations are derived to define concepts such as production rate and plant capacity. The chapter concludes by developing a list of I0 automation strategies. These strategies form the basis for the specific topics covered in this book.

2.1 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
There is a wide variety of basic industries, including not only manufacturing but all others as well. By examining the publicly held corporations whose shares are traded on the major stock exchanges, it is possible to compile a list of industry types. Such a list is presented in Table 2.l. This list includes all types of industrial corporations, banks, utilities, and so on. Our interest in this book is on industrial firms that are engaged in production. 

 TABLE 2.1 Basic Industries : General

Advertising
Aerospace
Automotive (cars, micks, buses)
Beverages
Building materials
Cement
Chemicals
Clothing (gaments, shoes)
Construction
Drugs, soaps, cosmetics
Equipment and machinery
Financial (banks, investment companies. loans)
Foods (canned, dairy, meats. etc.) .
Hospital supplies
Hotel/motel
lnsuranceMetals (steel. aluminum, etc.)
Natural resources (oil, coal, forest, etc.)
Paper
Publishing
Radio, TV, motion pictures
Restaurant
Retail (food, department store, etc.)
Shipbuilding
Textiles
Tire and rubber
Tobacco
Transportation (railroad. airlines, trucking. etc.)
Utilities (electric power, natural gas, telephone)

 Table 2.2 is a list of basic industries that produce goods, together with examples of companies that are members of these industries. The companies represented in this table can be divided into two types, depending on the nature of their production operations. The two types are the manufacturing industries and the process industries. Manufacturing companies are typically identified with discrete-item production: cars, computers, machine tools, and the components that go into these products. The process industries are rep resented by chemicals and plastics, petroleum products, food processing, soaps, steel, and cement. Our focus in this book is on manufacturing.
There are other ways to classify companies. One altemative is to place a company
into one of three categories: -

1. Basic producer
2. Converter
3. Fabricator

TABLE 2.2 Basic Industries: Manufacturing and Process Industries

    Basic industry                              Representative company
    Aerospace                                   Boeing Co
    Automotive                                 General Motors
    Beverages                                   Coca-Cola
    Building materials                        U.S. Gypsum
    Cement                                       Lone Star Industries
    Chemicals                                   E.I. du Pont
    ClothingHanes Corp.
    Drugs, soaps, cosmetics               Proctor & Gamble
    Equipment and machinery
        Agricultural                              Deere
        Construction                           Caterpillar Tractor
        Electrical                                 General Electric
        Electronics                              Hewlett-Packard
        Household appliances              Maytag
        Industrial                                 Ingersoll-Rand
        Machine tools                         Cincinnati Milacmn
        Office equipment, computers   IBM
       Railroad equipment                  Pullman
       Steam generating                      Combustion Engineering
    Foods
       Canned foods                          Green Giant
       Dairy products                        Borden
       MeatsOscar                            Mayer
       Packaged foods                      General Mills
    Hospital supplies                        American Hospital Supply
    Metals
       Aluminum                              Alcoa
       Copper                                  Kennecott
       Steel                                     U.S. Steel
    Natural resources
       Coal                                     Pinston
       Forest                                  Georgia-Pacilic
       Oil                                        Exxon
    Paper                                       Kimberly Clark
    Textiles                                    Burlington Industries
    Tire and rubber                         Goodyear

The three types form a connecting chain in the transformation of natural resources and basic raw materials into goods for the consuming public. The basic producers take the natural resources and transfonn these into the raw materials used by other industrial manufacturing firms. For example, steel producers transform iron ore into steel ingots.
The converter represents the intermediate link in the chain. The converter takes the output of the basic producer and transforms these raw materials into various industrial products and some consumer items. For example, the steel ingot is converted into bar stock or sheet metal. Chemical finns transform petroleum products into plastics for molding. Paper mills convert wood pulp into paper. A distinguishing characteristic of the convener is that its products are uncomplicated in physical form. The products are not assembled items. The production processes used to make the products may be complex but the products themselves are not.
The third category of manufacturing firms is the fuhricator. These firms fabricate and assemble final products. The bar stock and sheet metal are transformed into machinedengine components and automobile body panels. The plastics are molded into various shapes. Then these parts are assembled into final products, such as tmcks, automobiles, appliances, garments, and machine tools. Fabricators include both the firms that produce the components and those which assemble the components into consumer goods.
There are several complicating factors in this classification. Some firms possess a high degree of vertical integration, which means that their operations include all three categories. The major oil firms are examples of vertical integration. They convert natural resources into finished petroleum products and then market these products directly to the consumer. Another complicating factor is that some companies-the conglomerates-are in so many different types of business that it is difficult to classify them. Some of their operations are in the basic producer category; others are converters; and still other lines of business fall into the fabricator category.

REFERENCES

[1] BUCKINGHAM, W., Automation, Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., New York, 1961.
[2] DRUCKER, P. F., "Automation Payoffs Are Real," The WallS1r¢¢t Journal, September 20 1985.
[3] Groover, M. P. and J. C. WlGINTON, “CIM and the Flexible Automated Factory of the Future," Industrial Engineering, January 1986, pp. 74-85.
[4] Groover, M. P., M. WEISS, R. N. NAGEL., and N. G. ODREY, lndustrial Robotics.Technology, Programming, and Applications, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1986 Chapter I.
[5] HARRINGTON J., Compuler Integrated Manufacturing, Industrial Press. Inc., New York 1973.
[6] LUKE, H. D. Automation for  Productivity, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 1972.
[7] MERCHANT, M. E., "The lnexorable Push for Automated Production." Production Engineering, January 1977, pp. 44-49.
[8] SILBERMAN, C. E., and the Editors of Forlune, The Myths of Automation, Harper & Row, Publishers, lnc., New York, I966.
[9} TERBORGH. G., The Automaton Hysteria, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York 1966.

1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The following 26 chapters of this book are organized into nine parts. This introductory chapter has attempted to set the stage and whet the reader's appetite for the technical chapters that follow on automation, production systems, and computer integrated manufacturing.

Part I contains two chapters, the first of which covers some of the fundamental concepts and principles of manufacturing and automation. The second chapter in Part I discusses production economics, an essential subject for justifying an automation project.
Part ll is concemed with high-volume production of discrete products. The type of automation used here is sometimes called "Detroit automation" because of its extensive applications in the automobile industry. The four chapters in Part ll discuss the production lines, both automated and manually operated, that perform processing and assembly operations. The automated production lines are examples of fixed automation.
Pan III covers numerical control, an example of programmable automation. Numerical control is used for batch production of parts and products. The program is formed out of numbers, hence the name numerical control. An extension of numerical control technology is industrial robotics.

Part IV provides three chapters on industrial robotics: its technology, programming, and applications. '
Part V deals with material handling, one of the physical activities in the factory that “touch” the product. We concentrate, of course, on automated systems. The two chapters in Part V discuss automated material handling systems and automated storage systems.
Part VI is concemed with group technology and flexible manufacturing systems. A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a representative application of flexible automation. Group technology is considered a necessary principle to achieving a successful FMS.
Part VII contains only one chapter-on quality control and automated inspection.Please do not interpret the one chapter as meaning that quality control (QC) is not important. The chapter is substantial, both in length and importance. We leam that automated inspection methods do not always have to “touch” the product.
Part VIII covers automatic control systems. We survey the traditional linear feedback control theory and then proceed to consider how computer systems are used to achieve control over manufacturing operations in a modem factory.
Finally,

Part IX presents an introduction to computer integrated manufacturing. The five chapters describe the elements of CIM: computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacturing, manufacturing planning, manufacturing control, and the glue that holds these computer systems together-computer networks. We conclude the book with a description of what the future automated factory will be like, and the social impact that it will have.

1.3 ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST AUTOMATION

Since the time when production automation became a national issue in the late l950s and early 1960s, labor leaders and govemment officials have debated the pros and cons of automation technology. Even business leaders, who generally see themselves as advocates of technological progress, have on occasion questioned whether automation was really worth its high investment cost. There have been arguments to limit the rate at which new production technology should be introduced into industrv. By contrast, there have been proposals that goverment (federal and state) should not only encourage the introduction of new automation, but should actually finance a portion of its cost. (The Japanese govemment does it.) ln this section we discuss some of these arguments for and against automation.

Arguments against automation
First, the arguments against automation include the following :

1. Automation will result in the subjugation of the human being by a machine. This is really an argument over whether workers` jobs will be downgraded or upgraded by automation. On the one hand. automation tends to transfer the skill required to perform work from human operators to machines. ln so doing, it reduces the need for skilled labor. The manual work left by automation requires lower skill levels and tends to involve rather menial tasks (e.g., loading and unloading workparts, changing tools, removing chips. etc.). ln this sense. automation tends to downgrade factory work. On the other hand, the routine monotonous tasks are the easiest to automate, and are therefore the first jobs to be automated. Fewer workers are thus needed in these jobs. Tasks requiring judgment and skill are more difficult to automate. The net result is that the overall level of manufacturing labor will be upgraded, not down graded.
2. There will be a reduction in the labor force, with resulting unemployment. lt is logical to argue that the immediate effect of automation will be to reduce the need for human labor, thus displacing workers. Because automation will increase productivity by a substantial margin, the creation of new jobs will not occur fast enough to take up the slack of displaced workers. As a consequence, unemployment rates will accelerate.
3. Automation will reduce purchasing power. This follows from argument 2. As machines replace workers and these workers join the unemployment ranks, they will not receive the wages necessary to buy the products brought by automation. Markets will become saturated with products that people cannot afford to purchase. Inventories will grow. Production will stop. Unemployment will reach epidemic proportions. And the result will be a massive economic depression.

Arguments in favor of automation

Some of the arguments against automation are perhaps overstated. The same can be said of some of the declarations that advocate the new manufacturing technologies. The following is a sampling of the arguments for automation :

1. Automation is the key to the shorter workweek. 'I`here has been and is a trend towand fewer working hours and more leisure time. (College engineering professors seem excluded from this trend). Around the turn of the century, the average workweek was about 70 hours per week. The standard is currently 40 hours (although many in the labor force work overtime). The argument holds that automation will allow the average number of working hours per week to continue to decline, thereby allowing greater leisure hours and a higher quality of life.
2. Automation brings safer working conditions for the worker. Since there is less direct physical participation by the worker in the production process, there is less chance of personal injury to the worker.
3. Automated production results in lower prices and better products. lt has been estimated that the cost to machine one unit of product by conventional general-purpose machine tools requiring human operators may be 100 times the cost of manufacturing the same unit using automated mass-production techniques. Examples abound. The machining of an automobile engine block by transfer line techniques (discussed in Chapter 4 and 5) may cost $25 to $35. lf conventional techniques were used on reduced quantities (and the quantities would indeed be much lower if conventional methods were used) the cost would increase to around S3000. The electronics industry offers many examples of improvements in manufacturing technology that have significantly reduced costs while increasing product value (e.g., color TV sets, stereo equipment, hand-held calculators, and computers).
4. The growth of the automation industry will itself provide employment opportunities. This has been especially tnre in the computer industry. As the companies in this industry have grown (IBM, Burroughs, Digital Equipment Corp., Honeywell, etc.), new jobs have been created. These new jobs include not only workers directly employed by these companies, but also computer programmers, systems engineers, and others needed to use and operate the computers.
5. Automation is the only means of increasing our standard of living. Only through productivity increases brought about by new automated methods of production will we beable to advance our standard of living. Granting wage increases without a commensurate increase in productivity will result in inflation. ln effect, this will reduce our standard of living. To afford a better society, we must increase productivity faster than we increase wages and salaries. Therefore, as this argument proposes, automation is a requirement to achieve the desired increase in productivity.

No comment is offered on the relative merits of these arguments for and against automation. This book is concemed principally with the technical and engineering aspects of automated production systems. lncluded within the engineering analysis is, of course, consideration of the economic factors that determine the feasibility of an automation project.